О монографии нумизмата Н.П.Бауера. «Слитки серебра и золотые слитки русского средневековья. (Археологическое исследование). Ч.1. (1929). Ч.2 (1931)».

RESUME.
Part 1 & 2.
In summary, we felt it more preferable to translate the «conclusion» of the N.P. Bauer, as part analytical represented digitally material.
So,
«Even a cursory acquaintance with the origins of coinage, on the one hand, deep theoretical consideration of the enfranchisement of coins, on the other hand, leave no doubt on this, that the practice of the ingot has come a long evolutionary path, before it led to, in some cases as a final grant of rights of citizenship as well as coins. Very good it is specified in the following words: First they were tried, i.e. the noble metals are known to gradually adapt to the ingot under a certain weight … Later in the bars were applied stamps; first, probably trustworthy individuals, then states and cities.
It could be like, but also very good, that said, it is logical evolutionary series really held could be only an interesting hypothesis, or, on the other hand, just left the world of life is carried out, that in this case barely, that there would be together with the thoughts Financial scientist. Since it is very true is still a statement of Adolf Wagner (Germ.uch. economist XIX c. (1835-1917). See: ―Collegiate Dictionary Brockhaus and Efron‖/ that the emergence of money is impossible to study empirically «historic» because it is in itself full of life and our souls the process more old and a new factual material is insufficient.
However, it seems to me that the previous research on Russian soil found in bars are not confirmed this pessimistic verdict. In this puzzle we had the opportunity to learn and study anchored in the life of souls in the process of the frozen forms of gold bars and ingots of silver.
Since the earliest ingots, in any respect, as the weight and shape are uncertain, could be used at any time again as a commodity, so c objectives of the manufacture of jewelry, / that is, were completely liquid – note of trasl./. Then stabilized weight, without that in several cases, bars took quite a definite shape. Then we saw a little bar of varying shape and weight, so that the time of their forces in front of us, as a commodity that has been pushed into the background at all, since more bars have never felt the blows of a blacksmith, who were to establish the hardness of the metal. On the contrary, the porous surface of Kiev bars showed the opposite of being unfit for such purposes without the c previous remelting and cleaning from impurities. In contrast were the Western-Russian bars, dark-looking, which is trying to chisel, to install, the other is metal with a silver offered for payment.

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Silver in the shape and weight of the refined ingot stage of currency was in circulation for long periods of time and provided various forms of the ingot.
Finally, stamped ingots appeared as one without any doubt from having the right to the greatness of a stamp, the other, perhaps, partly from private origin. Their weight was too great for coins, even a very large coin (about 93 g), however, as it says quite correctly, for all the ingots French traveler G. Lannoy, they acted as gold coins. It stops, however, the evolutionary series, due to «the big coin, obviously, it did not happen without the influence of the established grand trade monopoly and the destruction of the Novgorod merchant corporations.
However, it is sketched observations indicate still an empty scheme, only the chronological date, topographical points of reference and historical background can give a real life. Now I want to make briefly is that without being able to afford to forget that everything I have done can only be a historical certainty and then get things just then their original, historically correct name, if the results of the study of written sources coincide with them.
With a large import of oriental coins in the IX and X in. the eastern European plain could not be more verbally and theoretically, the number of cast silver. Also for the XI century. I mean a century, without some small number of round and disk-shaped silver ingots, which are difficult to use in calculating both the number and weight. Only 44 of the ingot the total weight of approximately 4 kg of detecting messages which can also lead, and of treasures from the former Russian provinces, including the Baltic Sea. Compared with the more numerous, sometimes very large number, at the same time found a Western European coins, which help determine the time of circulation of these bars, the above number may not seem large. Only familiarity with the further evolution in ways that took Russian system of weights, allowing for some of the few bars to celebrate a few interesting data points. Half a pound of the late Russian = 204 · 756 and quarters = 102 · 378, while the observation of large fluctuations, sometimes you can find them.
After the termination at the end of XI century. general circulation coins, we have seen across the north and east of European Russia the various systems of the ingot occurs that separates each other really sharp with a geographically. On the «far east» / word for word. – note of Trasl./ in the Kama and Volga mean it was awkward round bars ―lepeshkovidnye‖ here, overstruck Arab money, probably from the middle of XI century. helped replace. They were very different in weight and divisibility in any of the longest bars in the XI, equally, there were also times with the last together in hoards. They were absent only a trace of a blacksmith, and external tool marks an intermediate stage decorations and equipment. Only
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in the pod with several Arab dirhams found, they were considered likely in their area of circulation really long, which is also likely to total weight came to us ―lepeshkovidny‖ about 53 kg, I think I pointed out. However, despite the identification of the forms could not hit a bridge to the German ingot in the present state of things.
On traditional Russian territory ―South‖, historically, in fact, it is clear in its development was preceded by other parts of the country. He belonged in all probability also put to us a few oblong gold bars, found both the German and Byzantine coins and inscriptions on the thumbnail XI., XII. and XIII century, seems to have been well documented.
Much larger values were South Russian silver bars permanent form of diamonds and the exact weight that reached both the intermediate stages, so to speak, to jump, where, nevertheless, took place north of them separately. True, a few of the coins, which were found in two hoards of these bars, certify to their treatment of the XII century. Younger rod ingots north who met with them in hoards, allowed to spread their appeal as the first half of next century. A large number of our existing diamond-shaped ingots — 376 copies in weight about 60 kg — making them great for the duration of treatment not only time, perhaps even inevitable.
There is no doubt that these ingots were geographically related most closely to the metropolis of the south, with Kiev Their weight of 158 ½ d, which came closer to half a liter of Roman and later Byzantine liters, propped up entirely particularly this observation.
With all these qualities that might not make no wonder that the North even if it only forms after the bars could, according to some from the south, because so clumsy as romb |romb-form| and bars that appear in the form of language, they still have some resemblance to the diamond-shaped, neat bars. The fact that they belonged to the north, could be convinced not only by their weight, but the topography of the treasure, no bars farther south than the Chernigov province had been found. The composition, however, the treasure, which did not show the coin in his compositions and only in the case of Novgorod bars in all 8 cases, strongly recommended during treatment and release to move in the XII century. Also, traces of a blacksmith, who must be noted in almost all bars, reminiscent of the forms of treatment of the past centuries. Quite a lot of time handling the ingots could no longer be conditional on a small number — 90 copies with a weight of 17 kg. And yet, of particular significance should be attributed to them, since they were first embodied the so-called North-Russian weight, which was distributed in the next century in the form of rods of the ingot through the whole of Russia at that time and far beyond its borders in Livonia and the Crimea.
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From a historical point of view when considering, were attempts to adapt the southern-treatment of the ingot to the north, who sought more and more to the future value that causes the greatest concern. Heavy, diamond-shaped ingots, cast their half of the supplied proof of this tendency in the form of ingots and bars in the form of rods south of weight. Only the first detected more or less large number, it was, in fact, 62 instances of weight 12 ½ lbs. Others survived only in the form of individual artifacts, which are particularly hard to grow, perhaps barely in our view the proposal that one or the other bar could get at the time of ignorance and lack of guidance in other weight categories ingots. Requesting the proposal to the language that the strength of these bars could only be due to the short term and that their time at the end of the treatment he usual diamond-shaped ingot was the same, also supported by the most interesting and one of the great Russian treasure bars. This treasure was found in 1906 in the city of Tver. He and contained besides jewelry as it turns out on closer inspection, all types of bars disappearing time the hegemony of the south and progressing north. Last very long rod-shaped ingots, the severed halves of this form and the Western Russian rod ingots belonged. Here I want to focus on the half stick of the ingot, the simultaneous appearance of which from the earliest ingot rod gives evidence that the use Halves of bars — the phenomenon was unknown to the north just south, as the earliest diamond-shaped bars indicate boards, and that borrowing during the transition period together with the weight of the south from the north. — We are writing further to the very large group of the ingot rod of Novgorod, the treasure of Mentak XIII century, finds a number of Mongol coins XIV century. and the discovery of the Mid-stamped with Akhtuba poluslitkom (Halves of bars) the first half of the XV century, been proven. Gave confidence scale lengths of bars rods, deformed bars starting from Tver to 207 mm in length only to the bullion from 107 mm Akhtuba, to us, which also occurs due to the dating of boards can be freely circulated bullion at the end of the centuries, and probably also at the end of half a century. It should be mentioned that the written sources of the turn of XIII century, make the distinction between «old» (vetchije) and «new» gryvnia of Novgorod, to which another interesting name to join, namely the «long» («-long piece of product»), which I like a long rod-shaped ingots of the XIII century identified.
For short bars of the XIV century should be taken, perhaps, a new name imminent «Ruble», which was applied to a variety of ―poltina‖ who performed the same function in a multi-prince of Russia, «Ruble» Novgorod. The number of surviving all of us stick rod ingots were very large, as it was for the early 302 copies at the likely total weight 60 kg to 340 copies in the late 66 kg These large numbers are also allowed his hand to speak about the issue during the 2-2 ½ centuries.
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Quite to the point would be to calculate here are a few more accurately the weight of all the bars of the Russian north. Emerged (see Table 6, 7, 8, 9 and 12) that in the XII century. average weight of each ingot 197, 00 g (75 romb-form bars), in the XIII century. — 200, 20 g (43 heavy diamond-shaped ingots, 197, 11 (to 193 bars long), in the XIV century. And XV. — 196, 89 g (260 short bars) and 199, 62 (45 ingots with high boards). I think it impossible to talk about lowering the weights at the end of centuries and even by category bars. Since all the difference just over 3 grams, or 1 ½% to 200 g and less significant than the Russian weight unit valve (= 4, 265 g). From this we can draw, however, only one conclusion, that the judge handed down to us from Novgorod bars XII and XIII centuries. and in Russia in XV century. when the weight unit did not occur later Russian 96 pound evil. (409, 512 g ) and would be of value, which «falls short» about 94 ills. (4 00, 975) to itself.
This observation would also be an accurate examination of poluslitkov as XIII, and XIV and XV centuries. That I have identified above. It is confirmed, as the 120 held by the science of short, well-known instances — their number was rounded to 215 bars with a total weight of about 20 ½ pounds — an average of only 95.46 g (= 22 ills. 36 shares) weighed, which would allow the multiplication 4 to obtain the result (= 381.84 g, up from about 397.00 g).
Interestingly, however, was handling sticks Halves of bars not only in terms of their scale and form of all known bars of sticks with which they are perfectly matched — some with early, others later. These half established us as a very independent unit of the ingot, as well as with them were no other fragments, such as weight 3 / 4 or 1 / 4 of the ingot. Few are mostly large ingots, it has been damaged or broken, as I just said it already, they come to my mind the name «Nizovskiy ruble,» or, in the way of expression Novgorod name «poltina», which means half of the overdue amount to a synonym rate. These were the Halves of bars which were used for the manufacture of silver wire from which you are chasing the grand «free money». These were then Halves of bars also the only bars that were in Russia have become even stamping.
Once we have considered so important direction of development of Russian ingot, we moved to a parallel perhaps to the side facing much more short-lived phenomena. These were, firstly, the Western Russian rod ingots in ingot including 135 in full weight of 13 kg. At first glance, there they would have to accede to their weight after the development of the north. However, 114 remaining bars show the average weight of 104, 86 g, which multiplies with 4 about 10 g of a traditional Russian pound at most (instead of 409, 512, 419 · 44). Therefore, should perhaps be assumed that the origin of their weights from Novgorod is a common, perhaps, but then that
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development would be different. Their appeal was time to go mainly to the XIII century. Be age, as through certification Mentak’s findings, and because of the absence of Baltic coins at their findings to other treasures. In the XIV century and, yet, nevertheless, especially in the second half of this lack would have been too surprising — as a rule. This dating seems to have suited me well as to the identity form an ingot, as they are again and again traces of a blacksmith and the severed fragments, which indicate, nevertheless, to have no practice at a distance. We met with them as a Western-Russian bars, now I think they can give a more accurate title through written sources. Is not this «Smolensk Grivna,» an important and wealthy trading city in the upper reaches of the Dnieper? They are my above mentioned definition of time as well the treatment would fit, since the value of this metropolis of Western Russian trade disappeared in the second half of XIV century. And if the bar was not called in the future more «quarters». (Part Four), when the name «Smolensk torque» of the chronicles and acts disappear?
We learned another side effect of the practice of Russian ingot to the east — bar with high sides that accept Russian weight almost invariably, if they are also heavier than the average. It is very possible that in Saum XIV. Which are called in Arabic sources, but this, of course, to be fully guaranteed, as well as the other aforementioned items require a thorough study of written sources
Part 3.
AFTERWORD OF THE ORIGINATOR.
During the study of various phenomena angry maximum and minimum values is essential arithmetic average and the average weight of coinage foot
and its attempts to adapt to the theoretical weight of the so-called cash carriers were based on the desire to «insurance.» Due to the difference between one-half pound of the future and an average weight of the ingots. In modern numismatics, the divided into three categories of metrology: Weight (weighted norm), the average weight and monetary ―stopa‖ /MS/.
By data Bauer’s work we have 10 board (treasure) with the WNT (weighted norm of the treasure), 198 g, confirm yet five, and because he did not know about the existence and use of such standards in the practice of monetary circulation, set theory, the data are objective.VN 198 g – a weight metrology standard for the treatment of silver in the Golden Horde /Table 1/. «Weighted norm» (VN) — this is standard issue or circulation of bank notes (silver ingots), which lawful order of a state, ie, VN is set by the monetary authorities. This is standard issue or circulation of banknotes, which is set by the average amount of weight (AW).
After making a brief digression, we note that in this context MS — it is an economic category issuance of banknotes, which uses the values issue
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in the political economy treatment coins and bars, as well as profit and loss accounting issue. Only in the manufacturing process MS generated added value.
Therefore, we set the «Normal Weight of Treasure» (NWT). It represents average weight of all denominations, members of the considered treasure. NWT is expressed formula:
NWT = ,
where N — number of denominations of money treatment.
Naturally. that this expression takes into account the actual weight of money, which was unstable in relation to abrasion, and a decrease in his conscious. The well-known phenomenon of weight loss during emission, it is amenable to it is indescribable. /Fig.2, 3/. Data written sources, metrology, regardless of the mood of the numismatist, had a change in the direction of reducing the viral load, with a chronological basis. (Fig. 3).
She served as an impetus for the hypothesis of a conscious or a specific process to reduce the weight of ingots to be determined by the monetary authorities. It would seem that a small margin to take out the monetary authorities, but surely we can talk about thousands of rubles, in terms of annual emissions of the North-Eastern Russia in the second half, for example, XIV century.
Equality of rate of circulation of money in coins and bars allow the issuing of such state money to win, not a reason to them under a common denominator. There are three motives savings; transactions, the precautionary motive and the accumulation of wealth. Motifs, highlighted the economic science applied to create savings and apply for the study of ―kladoobrazovaniya – boarding-procces‖. At the same time, the treasures of metrological parameters are different allowed to share their treasures criterion of «urgency.»
In particular, coin hoards, dropped out of the Golden Horde in a time of great In particular, coin hoards, dropped out of the Golden Horde in a time of great turmoil (1359-1380), due to violation of balance of silver, by reducing the supply of foreign exchange of the metal from the Venetians, which led to an imbalance between supply and commodity money. Silver was unclaimed and lost its liquidity, which was offset by the hoarding. There are many definitions of savings, which are more relevant at any given time.
If the money is collected as an end in itself – ―skopidomstvo‖ (mindless pointless hoarding), the money collected as means of circulation,
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i.e. asset that has a certain chronological range for transactions (transactions).
Among the exogenous ―kladoobrazovaniya‖ (boarding-procces) credit money based on metallic silver of the Viking Age, which consists of coins mintage is an example of a Muslim Murom treasure 1868 /Fig.4. /.
Ingots of the ruble and silver were cast the previous Grivna from certain metrology, which has a Eurasian basis. Change currency media associated with the desire of Novgorod as a major issuer to make trade more profitable silver. Image RUB-bars given in the paper / Fig. 5 /, by the end of the miniature XIII — XIV century. Corresponds to the metric parameters for this type of monetary support, Bauer set in the translated work.
Silver semi-finished form received in Novgorod, which is called. While the bars of different issuers with different shapes and metrology treatment could be used in the theory outside the homeland, the issuer. On the example of the treasure of Tver in 1906 showed that it dates back to the southern Russian metrology currency. The presence of caches in southern Russia, consisting of bars of different Backgrounds and different weight standards, suggest a multi-vector foreign exchange effects on the Ukraine since the Mongol invasion. While the laws of statistics makes it possible to identify on the basis of the treasure itself WNT can confidently locate it on the scale of inflation, the metal /Table 1, 2/ for the second half of the 1320.
I think, that inflation of the metal money installed itself in the fall issue of weight, mean high prices of the metal, although prices have not changed a whole.
Weight loss cash carriers allowed to connect to the chronology, which in turn determined the new dating method treasure, which is important for sites with no coins. As a result, 32 had received some of the treasure and the dating of this «registry» can be extended by including the expense of already-known treasures. /Table 2/.
The paper was undertaken, taking into account the calculated risk, the metrological analysis Archangelsk treasure 1989, which has no bars in its composition. Thus, the presence dating items — coins, and accurate publication of the monument, associated with its metrology how complex and its individual components reveals synergy the historical process of political and socio-economic development of events Arctic, not to mention international relations. One of the political aspects, as to consist in the movement of public finances of «Novgorod’s Land.»
The data presented in this part of the work, suggest the existence of circulation of precious metal in range-Baltik area, which served as a commodity flows, so flows of precious metal, which itself was a determined, highly liquid commodity / Fig. 9 /.
North-Western Russian lands were part of the earliest trade organization in Northern Europe, where since the 14th century began to
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develop the division of labor and products of Agrarian Sector in Russia, were in demand in Europe. Weighted data bars in both Europe and Russia show the universality of weighted norm /VN / equal to 204, while 198 g. is the VN in the Golden Horde – is territory from Wallachia till Khorezm.
Metrological data can detect the hidden treasures of both in order to maintain funds to specific conditions of instability, often life situation. such monuments are associated with the chronology of the space. Board with the state standard 198 or 204, — a monument of national, state finances and the last with a board VNK, exceeding 204, — is a real treasure.
Metrological data revealed the presence of ―currency war‖, its completely synchronize relate to the most important turning point in European history since 1315.
These written sources as the Western European and Russian show the rate of metal intoxication in overflow from one form to another, allowing to introduce a special factor in the formula calculations not only yield coinage, but also to identify the economic parameters of currency on the basis of a single currency in the media or another state as a whole.
Data to identify the weighted norm of the treasure (VNK) are obtained as a result of statistical measurements that use category of «average.» The paper contains a wide variety of examples from history and economics, demonstrating the universality of the term.
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Список иллюстраций части 3.
List of Figures of Part 3.
Рис.1. «Весовая диаграмма слитков северного веса XIV в. По 273 экз., опубликованным Н.П. Бауером к книге».
Fig. 1. «The weight chart bars northern weight of XIV century. In 273 specimens. Published by the book N.Bauer.»
Рис.2. Металлическая инфляция на Руси в средневековье (на примере серебряных слитков). Условные обозначения. Сверху вниз. 1. исходная весовая норма 204,756 г. 2. Инфляция новгородского рубля. 3. инфляция московского рубля.
Fig. 2. Metal inflation in Russia in the Middle Ages (for example, silver bars). Legend. From top to bottom. 1. initial weight, the rate of 204.756 2. Inflation Novgorod ruble. 3. Moscow inflation rate.
Рис.3. Среднегодовой темп падения веса слитков в Северо-Восточной Руси.
Fig. 3. The average annual incidence of weight bars in the North-Eastern Russia.
Рис. 4. Муромский клад 1868 г. Хронолого-эмиссионное распределение. (РА ИИМК. Ф.1, 1868, № 143, лл. 18–20).
Fig. 4. Murom treasure 1868 chronological distribution of emission.
Fig. 5.Деталь миниатюры XIII-XIV вв. Человек со слитками.
Fig. 5. Detail of miniature XIII-XIV centuries. The Man with the ingots.
Рис.6. Серебряный слиток киевского типа, называемый Н.Бауером «ромбовидным», использовался в качестве номинала «гривна» в южнорусской денежной системе (по Hingston-Quiggin A. Pl.26, № 3).
Fig. 6. The Silver Bar of Kiev’s type, called H. Bauer ‘diamond’, was used as the nominal «Grivna» in the southern Russian monetary system (by A.Hingston-Quiggin. Pl .26, № 3).
Рис.7. Слитки клада из под гор.Чехов. 1945 г.Люблин (Польша).(по А.Чапкевич, Т.Левицки и др.).
Fig. 7. Ingots of the treasure from under gor.Chehov. 1945 Lublin (Poland). (According to Chapkevich, T. Levitsky et al.).
Рис.8. Серебряные маркированные слитки с о-ва Цейлон (по А.Хингстон-Кьюггину /Hingston-Quiggin A./).
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Fig. 8. Silver ingots marked from the island of Tsheylon (by A.Hingston-Quiggin).
Рис.9. Слитки клада Азарве 1903 г. Готланд. Швеция по М. Стенбергеру.
Fig. 9. Ingots treasure Azarve 1903. Gotland. Sweden by M. Stenberger.
Рис.10. Весы из Сарая, найденные шведской археологической экспедицией в 1843-1849 гг. (по Т.Арне).
Fig. 10. Scales of the Saray, found a Swedish archaeological expedition in 1843-1849. (By T. Arne).
Рис.11. Слитки клада Мельниково (Райсала) 1890 г. (по Т.Тульвио).
Fig. 11. Ingots treasure Melnikovo (Raysala) 1890 (by T. Tulvio).
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Список сокращений.
ВЭ – Вопросы экономики. М.
ГЭ – Государственный Эрмитаж. Санкт-Петербург.
ЕЦБ – Европейский Центральный банк. Брюссель.
МВФ – Международный валютный фонд. Вашингтон.
МИА – Материалы и исследования по археологии СССР. М.- Л..
НС – Нумизматический сборник. М.
СА – Сов.археология. М.
ФС – Финансы и статистика. М.
ФРС – Федеральная резервная система США. Вашингтон.
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Н.П. Бауер.
Слитки серебра и золотые слитки русского средневековья. (Археологическое исследование). Ч.1. (1929). Ч.2 (1931) / Монография. Пер. с немецкого М.П. Сотниковой и Н.А.Хана. Послесловие Н.А. Хана.
Обложка. Карта находок слитков из книги А.А. Ильина 1921 г.