«ВЗАИМОДЕЙСТВИЕ И ВЗАИМОВЛИЯНИЕ РУСИ И ОРДЫ В ОБЛАСТИ ЭКОНОМИКИ И КРЕДИТНО-ДЕНЕЖНОЙ ПОЛИТИКИ В XIV В.».

Хан Н.А. Взаимодействие и взаимовлияние Руси и Орды и области экономики и кредитно-денежной политики в XIV в. – М.: ИЭ РАН, 2006. 246 с.

ISSN 5-201-03098-х                                         К 65.6(2)3(2)43

© Н.А. Хан

© ИЭ РАН

CОДЕРЖАНИЕ.

ВВЕДЕНИЕ…………….. 5

ГЛАВА 1. ОБЩИЕ ТЕНДЕНЦИИ И       ИСТОРИКО-ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИЕ ОСНОВЫ РАЗВИТИЯ ЭКОНОМИКИ НА ТЕРРИТОРИИ ВОСТОЧНОЙ ЕВРОПЫ В XIII-XV вв……………………..……….19.

1.1. Основные факторы развития и экономического противостояния Руси и Орды в XIII-XV  вв…………………….19.

1.2. Товарные и финансовые потоки  в Восточной Европе  в XIV —  начале XV вв………………………………………………………..……….38.

1.3. Проникновение булгарских купцов на Север и структура экспорта Золотой Орды в первой половине XIV в (опыт историко-экономического анализа)……….……………………………………………………..………..54.

1.4. Откупы и контрибуции в Восточной Европе  в XIV — первой половине XV в. К проблеме источников денежных потоков в Восточной Европе………………………………………………………………………..67..

ГЛАВА 2. КРЕДИТНО-ДЕНЕЖНАЯ ПОЛИТИКА НА РУСИ (вопросы методики изучения)………………………………………………………………77.

2.1. О метрологическом стандарте и переходе на рублевую систему…………………………………………………………..77.

2.2. Кредитно-денежная политика в Северо-восточной Руси ……….…..95

2.3. Металлическая инфляция и меры борьбы с ней………………………………………………………………………………….110.

ГЛАВА 3. КРЕДИТНО-ДЕНЕЖНАЯ СИСТЕМА ЗОЛОТОЙ

ОРДЫ       ……………………………………………..……………….127.

3.1. Серебряный слиток-сом – платежный инструмент финансовой системы Золотой Орды…………………………………………………127.

3.2. Монетная стопа Золотой Орды XIV в………………………………………149.

3.3. Монетный фонд Золотой Орды XIV в. (опыт статистического измерения)…………………………………………………………………………156.

ГЛАВА 4. ОБЩЕЕ И ОСОБЕННОЕ В РАЗВИТИИ ДЕНЕЖНОЙ КУЛЬТУРЫ НА ТЕРРИТОРИИ ВОСТОЧНОЙ ЕВРОПЫ…………..…….170.

4.1. Деятельность монетных дворов Восточной Европы в XIV-первой половине XV вв……………………………………………………….………………170.

4.2. Механизм прохождения платежей.……………………………….187.

4.3. Кредитные формы денег на основе металлических средств платежа (торветики)…………………………………………………………….. 199.

ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ………………………………………………………….207.

Источники и литература………………………………………………215.

Список иллюстраций…………………………………………………..237.

Summary…………………………………………………………………240.

Список сокращений……………………………………………………238

 

SUMMARY

N.A.Khan

 

INTERACTION AND INTERFERENCE OF RUSSIA AND GOLDEN HORDE IN THE ECONOMY AND CREDIT POLICY IN XIV CENTURY

In absence of own ore base of silver in territory Eastern Europe unique way was reception currency metal for internal monetary circulation increasing export.

If during 8-11 centuries. Eastern Europe was the basic transit center between Forward Asia and Northern Europe in trade in silver during Mongolian time in conditions of opposition of essentially different types a civilization – Nomad’s and, Farmer’s, each of the parties searched for own export resources. At the same time methods of enrichment typical for the Middle Ages, robberies and military contributions that is the noneconomic form of redistribution of an additional product were actively applied. The basic sources for reconstruction of monetary circulation are клады, being briefly- and longly- urgent deposits hidden both in minute of danger, and with the purpose of the savings on a case of inflation. This materials, in a combination to the data statistical measurements and written sources allow to make macroeconomic supervision and to explain some historical processes, as in separate resisting systems so to understand some events of struggle between Russia and the Horde as Interconnected types of the civilizations resisting each other by a principle of binary opposition.

CHAPTER 1. The GENERAL TENDENCIES AND ИСТОРИКО-ECONOMIC BASES of DEVELOPMENT of ECONOMY IN TERRITORY of the EAST EUROPE In XIII-XV centuries.

In Chapter 1 it is discussed consequences and the general condition of economy and monetary circulation on territories of the East Europe which has followed after the Mongolian invasion, and also revival of a facilities and restoration of economic former communications in XIV century which depend basically on export opportunities of the states on it of the located, maintained territories caused by resource potential. History and conomic researches show about receipt of silver — the main currency metal of the East Europe in the Middle Ages from four directions. 1. Novgorod. 2. Smolensk-Kiev. 3. Tebrizs and 4. Bulgaro-Delhi. Here the prices and structure and profitableness of trade, to a lesser degree its volumes are compared. Despite of practically one source of export resources what was the European Northeast and Western Siberia, the structure of export was different. At the same time, the fact of an establishment of unequivocal profitableness, on trade in fur of the premiums — an ermine is represented interesting, to a component of 36 times in a direction of Brugge and Delhi. Such comparison has allowed to draw a conclusion on sharp competitive struggle for the market of furs between Bulgar’s and the Novgorod’s merchants and importance Ugra as colonies for Novgorod. /Fig.1/.

To Novgorod and Bulgar as payment for deliveries of furs silver, but in the latter case presence of gold in India decrease costs on payment of furs acted made possible, by payment by their gold coins which find on Sowing. Caucasus and the Volga region. It is established, that thus Ratio 1 / 8, that kept silver inside Kyptchak.

Studying of structure of export Golden Horde merchants in a direction Average Priob’e — Average Volga — India has allowed to reveal profitableness in trade. It is established, that on trade in furs profitableness has made 36 Frequency rate, Horses 10 Horses, and on trade in fabrics of 300-500%. Ugra — the richest colony of Novgorod — an external belt of contracts of Novgorod with Princes. Similar profitableness — 36 Frequency rate has been established by furs and for the Novgorod trade in direction Priob’e — Novgorod — Brugge, allowed to explain value Priob’e historical Ugra for economy of Russia and the Horde. Studying of the prices and profitable nesses on trade on such commodity position as a horse for Near and Middle East as far as we know, is carried out for the first time.

The historical sources having a range with X on XIV centuries, narrating about the form to trade булгарских merchants with population Priob’e allow to reveal historical bases of occurrence of money. In work comes out with the assumption not only of realization of different forms of cost, but also it is supposed, that each of the parties during trade offered own money, i.e. trading process should be represented as an exchange of one cost for another.

1.4. For military culture of the Middle Ages military attacks on neighbours, collection of payoffs and contributions had certain value. From the Historic-economic point of view it is of interest with the purpose of finding-out of quantities of money in circulation and establishments of resource potential of the subordinated territories. It is established, that the sum of contributions usually made 5000 roubles and on the size has been comparable with Horda’s «vyihod», thus the attention to presence of the significant money resources which have been saved up on Ustyug which are comparable to the main trading — transshipment center the East Europe — Bulgar is inverted. For the beginning XV tax population the number is established on Sowing. To Dvina, making 50 thousands of men.

CHAPTER 2. The CREDIT POLICY IN RUSSIA (questions of a technique of studying).

In chapter 2.1 it is considered(examined) bases credit-and-monetary полотки Ancient Russia during transition on rouble systems. In a basis of transition to rouble system as face value of the maximum monetary unit, and monetary account previous inflationary processes which were expressed in increase in number of basic accounting unit of grivna in an ingot of grivna — silver laid. As a wreath archaic up to rouble system the monetary account expressed in one of additional clauses of the Vast truth «Oh dishonor» served: “And From grivna of silver -7.5 grivna’s”. Calculations, and also a concrete material — the Byzantian bowl from Beresovo Tobolsk prov, found in 1877, directly speak about existence of the metrological standard which was used at calculations and conducting the account of the means based on metrology of half-fault of the future Russian pound of equal 204,756 g the given standard has been established legislatively. Naturally, in this connection, that start of rouble system where enters both a rouble — ingot and the new monetary account should take place on metrology of half-fault of the Eurasian pound. Opportunities Novgorod money-men have been rigidly limited to previous inflation, properties of the silver giving at recasting 1 % an intoxication, and also geopolitical position of Novgorod which began even more actual for Russia after invasion Batyi. Therefore the new maximum monetary unit of Ancient Russia — rouble, appeared not only large price by virtue of start in the reference of an ingot of double moulding with lowered breakdown in the bottom part, but was an anti-inflationary measure. The introduction of rouble confirmed Lustck board 1866 with ingots of double moulnding with metrology of 202 g. has taken place simultaneously with the termination application in practice clauses «Oh dishonor» and concealment of the data кладов, i.e. not later than second half 1270th years./Fig.2/. Old archaic monetary units as ingots of «grivna of silver» continued to function as lawful payment means, their overflowing in a southern direction is marked. Last time « «old roubles  of Novgorod» are mentioned in the extra document — the credit contract, the servitude made by metropolitan Kiev and All Russia Kiprian in 1389 in Constantinople.

The beginning of own monetary circulation in Moscow — capital of Northeast Russia is considered in Chapter 2.3. As a material for similar studying two serve Moscow Boards. One, found by the employee of People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs in 100 meters from Spasskaja towers in 1940 г, another — in time constructions of hotel » Russia » in 1967 the technique in their studying was applied following. First dating of their possible loss that was made on the basis of a metrological parameter equal as appeared, « weight norm » Loparev board 1890, 190,5 g then date of possible issue which has been correlated to stamps among which there were stamps with a name of prince Vladimir has been established was defined. This name has been identified with the cousin and the co-owner of Moscow, future colleague Dmitry Ivanovich’a on Kulikovo field Vladimir Andreevich Serpuhovskiy. To this promoted impossibility for the political reasons for Dmitry Ivanovich to let out bank notes on its own behalf. Studying historical-political events has allowed to establish a date started of release of half-oozes with stamps — March, 1363 when Dmitry Ivanovich the second time this year was borrowed(occupied) with Vladimir and has declared at this time this city and a princedom of the Otchina.

Release of half-oozes with stamps is the major an establishment of the Moscow monetary authorities in the field of a credit policy — she has shown presence those as the choice of face value led to to essential decrease in costs in issue and the reference, to acceleration of a monetary revolution and decrease in inflation. All this was done in conditions of absence of own ore base of silver that forced to increase export, to find additional sources of receipt of currency metal.

2.3. While in service monetary regalium monetary authorities constantly reduced norms of stamping of coins or carried out(spent) decrease(reduction) in its(her) test. The latent income in conditions of metal monetary circulation in an economic science can be named inflationary. It(he) is caused by the inflation expressed in the monetary form. The establishment with exact numerical values, both on chronology, and on absolute value of norms of the given tools, represents that interest according to which, at a constancy of monetary weight, authority received rather significant income, not making thus of any efforts.

With this purpose the inflationary scale, with a time interval of 135 years with second half 1270 before Vasily’s I Dmitrievich reform of 1410 in Northeast Russia and in Novgorod with an interval of 140 years has been produced, last date is caused by message G. de Lannoy.

So, for 135 years Russian rouble in Moscow has lost in weight 43, 73 г, that has made 22,871%. While Novgorod for 140 years in view of message G. de Lannoy in 1413-1414 г weighed 184,872, having shown rate of metal inflation of 8,478%, Calculations show, that conscious controlled process which at an adverse foreign policy and economic conjuncture could lead to bankruptcy was.

CHAPTER 3. CREDIT-AND-MONETARY SYSTEM OF THE GOLD HORDE

The monetary system of Golden Horde had Central-asiatic roots and is based on a triad a copper coin, silver дирхем — a bar of silver a catfish. W. Hinz and E. Schilbach have established, that the catfish of Golden Horde was emitted with weight of 198 g of the financier Francesco Balducci Pegolotti from Florence which has visited Tana and Crimea in XIV century, has in detail described a monetary facilities of the Italian colonies and turkis cooperating with them. The catfish — ingot according to the calculations which have been leadave been carried out on the basis of his(its) description, at the rate of in limits was cast 198 г, remaining thus by an issue basis for issue 120-dirham’s a weight catfish улуча Джучи. At the same time, the monetary catfish from private(individual) orders should be issued from reference, i.e. the lawful catfish — ingot, a having metrological limit equal to half of the European pound.

The 120-dirham’s som the weight catfish during currency reforms of each new governor of Golden Horde was minted with the increasing specification that is typical display of operation of monetary regalium in political ends. In result, incomes of monetary authorities decreased /fig.5/. The catfish — ingot with the given weight norm formed an issue basis for stamping a monetary catfish that is economically justified, in during all period of issue 1300-1380 had weight within the limits of 198 g locked a financial system, forcing slowly falling.

Absence inflationary in a credit policy did not allow monetary authorities of the Horde to receive super money the income. At the same time, having started with 202 Russian rouble — ingot according to inflationary measurements in 10-20-years has reached(achieved) metrological size of a catfish, i.e. 198 g. in XIV century, that has not made his comprehensible on Russian trading platforms, and on the contrary in Golden Horde began to accept on this weight norm Russian roubles — ingots. They began to carry out external function here. Клады where the weight norm corresponds(meets) 198 г, it is found 16 and include as Kypchak, and Russian roubles. All of them are found out in boundary territories of the Horde or in her territory.

3.2. Monetary stop — the major regulating attribute of monetary manufacture directly influencing a condition of monetary circulation and profitableness of treasury. At stamping there is a formation(an education) of the added cost. In view of issue profitableness of a catfish — ingot it has been established, that during the period before reform of Tokhnamysh about 1381 monetary stops of Golden Horde made 128 monetary units.

3.3. Statistical measurements of monetary fund of the state Golden Horde of XIV century have allowed to reveal significant financial difficulties, other methods unattainable which have arisen during board « kind tsar » Janobek (1342-1357), and prompt accumulation by the population of coins, in the form of the deposits, having place in the period «great zamiatnia» (1359-1380) have been connected not with military-political events in the Volga region, and sharp deficiency of silver. Besides it is established, what exactly plundered silver of XIII century has allowed Golden Horde to keep a financial system during the 100-years period, and his absence has caused that «great zamiatnia».

CHAPTER 4. THE GENERAL AND ESPECIAL IN DEVELOPMENT OF FINANCIAL CULTURE IN TERRITORY OF THE EAST EUROPE.

4.1. Activity of mints of the East Europe in XIV-first half XV centuries is studied profitableness of mints — the centers on release of silver coins and ingots, as Ancient I of Russia, and Golden Horde. The data on 7 centers have been revealed and comparisons to activity of the similar centers of Iran, Italy and Germany are lead(carried out). Everywhere parameters of profitableness were at a level 5-7%% and only in Novgorod in view of moulding ingots in two steps given parameter made 13,33%. The establishment of profitableness has allowed to assume about sharp polarization in social stratification of Novgorod, and also to establish monetary to stop of  /Dmitry Donskoy’s first monetary issues, begun not later than 1381. It has made 203 copies.

4.2. The given materials have allowed to reveal the mechanism of passage of payments. When those were carried out in two форах — a coin and ingots that fully complies with the data of written sources, first of all Fr.Pegolotti. Still St. Bolin marked, that the coin leaving monetary court yard carries in itself cost of stamping and cost of metal. In the sum it, makes her more dearly. One of the making cost of a coin is cost new, that is added. Application of the given category allows to understand features of the reference weight and ingot silver in system of monetary calculations, besides finding-out of two-uniform system of passage of payments that is connected at all with cultural, — with economic laws. Rather low rate of a monetary catfish to an ingot the norm was established legislatively, that has been caused by functioning of the added cost.

4.3. The analysis of inscriptions on a dining room to utensils (Tourevts) both Russian, and Turkic has allowed to reveal two types of the bill on metal means of payment. One with profitableness to repayment of 97,23%, another with forward discount of equal 9,51%. If the first has been based for 204,756, by the second for 198 g.

In the conclusion on the basis of modern terminology of a banking interaction of credit-and-monetary systems and monetary streams as is considered(examined)

«Credit experience» /CO/ which was expressed in the organization of a credit monetary policy(politics) as the independent system considered separately and then in interaction. The given approach has allowed to approach to the decision of the put problem as system — to the theoretical multifunctional organization when such events as Куликовская fight and loss here Мамаем the treasury, then invasion Tokhtamysh made a new grouping of «credit experience».