ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF ECONOMIC HISTORY OF GOLDEN HORDE.

 

 

Nomadic Empire originated after the conquest by the Mongols of Eastern Europe long organized the monetary economy is not experiencing liquidity problems. Monetary circulation was based on silver, role of gold in the form of Indian coins as an issue of monetization. Currency relation of interactions of monetary systems of the States. Goods flows in relation to the money supply, which serviced & the show new facts of economic history, politics. The significant of Chinese silver for GH is installed at first time, it is not saved from cyclical spread Alpine silver ending issue the coins in 1415.

The death of Genghis-khan was the only reason for the retreat of the Mongolian troops from Europe when they were in the 300 km.from Venice. The invaders decided to settle in the Volga region, where the two wings of the White and the Blue Horde shared rule over conquered lands. «Golden Horde» (GH). GH as a concept-a new word, thanks to the late Russian scribes. It is acceptable to use the title of Ulus Juchi, Kypthcaq. Golden Horde (GH). The  State from Bolgaria to the Irtysh River and the Kama River from the middle to the Aral Sea and Darband-Crimea. Collected in the Volga region loot the riches and prisoners qualified artisans and builders have erected on the lower Volga consistently two capitals The  Saray & New Saray (Fig. 1). GH was economically self-sufficient State, long not experienced liquidity problems, thus establishing its macroeconomic parameters which can represent considerable scientific  interest.

 

Monetary organization.

The Organization of money circulation is the most important task of the State, including the medieval. The Mongols, robbed the entire Eastern Europe carried silver on the Volga River, but started an independent monetary Coinage Issue only since 1266 according  Alfia Sibgatullina (1985: 14-15; 2003: 30).  Means, after a quarter of a century after the capture of Kiev in 1240 Batu Khan in the Ulus of Juchi were able to renounce influence in Baghdad, which, incidentally, took and managed to establish cash monetary circulation.    Qypchaq has its own financial system, money, based on the synthesis of achievements of Iranian and Central Asian traditions. It had its own institutions and instruments that will study the generation of historians and numismatists. Study of monetary circulation makes it possible to evaluate it as monetary in nature. It inspired silver standard, expressed in certain clearly specified weight norm cash units-ingot, coin, which is defined as «Silver standard”.

One of the interesting mysteries of metrology money circulation is a numerical identity Hinz- Schilbach, whereby the weight (metrological) standard using som-ingot as a money carrier-ingot is 198 g. First attempt took place  Walter Hinz. Another attempt to identify the weight norms accounts of som undertook Erich Schilbach.

Our calculations showed that the rate of metrology can be obtained in two ways as per Ounce via Pera (7.5) and through Iranian sagio (saggio miskal′ (mitkal) and numerically looks like: 26.43 x 7.5 = 4.4 x 45 ( Hinz 1955:7; Schilbach 1970; 192, 194, 197).      Powered without distorting the picture of money circulation in the Kypchak, where the main instrument was an ingot with normative weight at 198 g, often of Russian origin. It is through this metrological value passed the bulk of the settlements in the Horde, which reflected in the hoards of ingots Nikolay Bauer (2013: 147-148, tabl.1).

However, the flow of silver from Venice took place according to 202.4, that quite suited even to Moscow, that although it was expensive, but consistent with the highest weight standards as GH, and Moscow. At the same time the use of Russian bullion by weight 198 g. cut through hordes of moneylenders «watch out» for inflation in Moscow Rus(sia).  GH Money offices   demanded from Russian silver  by standard in 198 g. The situation changed in the early 15 sent.

We do not expect to outpace the achievements of numismatists, however, the facts of economic history forced to make specific assumptions. From works Georgey Vernandsky(1997: 96, 222) and John Fennell (Феннел 1989: 179-180; Fennel 1995: 125-126). known that Novgorod Mongols conducted a census of the population for the purpose of taxation tribute set of cannon fodder for the war in China and Indochina;. The first census was held in 1257. As set J.Fennell, conducted double-entry bookkeeping, regarded as the Mongols, and Novgorod. If it is known on the Novgorod ruble at that time had not been invented, and   in the «Gryvna of silver» (GS), it is not known until now was deemed Mongols.

There is one of the historical document of Novgorod studied Jonatan Franklin and Simon Shepard (1998:  232)  mention about the “Volga Grivna.“

By analogy with the name GS historians suggested that this silver bullion from Volga Bulgaria but my search showed that silver ingots were issued and came into monetary circulation composition GH in late 13 cent., in other words after the date of the document. Therefore, we should speak in terms of which the Russians referred to Volga Grivna how money calculated by Bulgarian (Volga-Kama) account. There was some nominal but tangible carrier it was not.  This is almost so called “token money could provide a fixed nominal anchor and a medium of exchange for high and low value transactions” (Redish 1995: 718; 2000). Some data in this issue, apparently, can play data on monetary issue\output of first emissions of Khans Mengu-Timur and Aribuga.

Documents show that the Mongols had actively flirted with Novgorod, both in terms of policy, so in terms of trade. In the West, however, have noticed that China has stopped deliveries on «Great Silk Road» (GSR) as goods, and therefore silver in 1368.  After establishing the ratio of silver in Moscow and Volga Bulgaria that is quoted as 3 coins Moscow for 2 dirhems (С.И.Чижов, И.И.Кауфман, А.М.Колызин), monetary authorities began to race about weakening their currencies. The aim of such steps-obtaining preferences in mutual trade. \Fig.2\.

Overall, the monetary policy of the GH was in organizing and managing the bimetallic monetary management, based on the silver bars and silver coins. Copper coin participated in circulation as local even private money. So trimetallic money regime it impossible to named.  In general, bimetallism as a phenomenon of the history of money, which he wrote at the different times John H. Munro, Robert William, James Scott, Priyabrat Dash, Constantina Katsari, Léon Walras, Christopher M. Meissne found generalization in the book Angela Redish (2000), the main the idea of which is to establish the value of gold money when silver becomes a commodity, and, on the contrary, the establishment of the value of silver coins when gold becomes a commodity.

However, this forced the rate of copper to dirhem, as installed in the front row was a robbery of the poorest segments of the population in favor of the Treasury. The most studied and no less interesting it seems silver money based on a weight standard.

It was som-ingot, as emitted by analogue of North-Eastern Russia, but was used as a reserve money. A treasure trove of bullion was a primary Reserve Fund, which spend bars appeal to address the couch or at the discretion of the Khan as did Uzbek in 1318 Azerbaijan during the Persian campaign.

At the time of the battle of Kulikovo, which was a special period of Russian history as indicated by Charles Halperin (1985: 136) when Russia in politics ceased to obey the Horde and embarked on their own emancipation in comparison with Kievan Rus state, silver bullion has been completely lost by Nikolai Khan (2006: 109-110). And came to power, was forced to hold Tokhtamysh zerofical monetary reform, which, however, did not affect the Bulgarians  (Мухаметшин, 2006: 362-363, 367).

Monetary system in the Horde was monetary in nature, in other words  designed for interaction with neighboring evolved along with them.    As above wrote weight norm ingots in Horde stood at 198, while catfish, circulating coins 190. Payments “som” on coins was equated to som-ingot weight 198 g. (Khan 2015). Treasury received here «refinancing» in the form of sales tax. So here it was unprofitable to reduce weight of Som-bar, whereas the weight of the coins declined.

Here we approach the methodological problem of fixing prices medieval managers. But price dynamics mathematical regression methods represents a considerable difficulty at present. We have in mind the existence of statistical bases. Establishing the content of silver in varying monetary unit is the most important procedure in the study and pricing and, in General, monetary options, not to mention macroeconomic indicators analyzed in the relevant works (The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: 257).

In this regard, to implement the enormous amount of preparatory activities, when hoards of layout with GH coins will bring not only economic but historical conclusions. Below are the annual treasure layout Dubovka from Ryazan district\oblast, (Fig.1;  12. # 1) in view of the publication of his the most qualitative and peripherally  findings in comparison with major financial and issue centers of Golden Horde. Treasure for TPQ dates from coin of Tohtamyš 796\1395. The annual distribution of coins hoard GH carried out by the author for the first time (Fig.3).

You will notice that your coins in the region was uneven, as language technology would say «the occurrence of ribs» of money circulation. Hidden treasure was immediately after the break in the flow of the coins, as the saying goes: «just in case», that in Ryazan were associated with uncertainty about the future. The fact is that per year the last known coins for two years of money in the region was almost as soon as the flow is restored, the money was removed from the money market on the periphery of what was already known (Fennel 1995: 129).

However, a slight flow of coins and 782 & 783 hidzara era in the region said that in the previous period as a result of the reform of Tokhtamysh, which was zero- character (a complete change of currency), coins arrived here in abundance.

We must to see important observation of Robert Blake (1937: 327-328), whereby silver with a dash of antimony \surma, kohl; chemical symbol – Sb.\ was Chinese origin. And in fact, in hoards of the Volga region Numismatic finds are correlated to the impurities of copper-lead and antimony. Most, however, said that silver without admixture of antimony, particularly forming cellars out of whole complexes of Alpine silver thread Eyvgeniy Begovatov, A.A.Tchernyaev, R.H.Hramchenkova (2012: 25, табл.1).

This refers to the early shaped lozenge ingots called Bauer «silver zakamskoe» (behind Kama river). The situation changed in the period of Juchids. According to the Karatunskij hoard, carefully typed into scientific circulation  Djamil G.Myhametshin (2012: 212, табл.7). Surma (Sb) presents in coins that are not lead, but have lower percent silver. It is absent in all the coins that contain lead and \ or copper.

Meanwhile, it should be noted that in the coin khan from Kazan Shadibek (802-810 \ 1399-1407)  antimony (surma Sb) already presents, it supports the view of Italian scientists, the world numismatics get acquainted with the fact that in 1368. China stopped trade with the West (Houtte 1978: 90). To what extent this was due to the expulsion of the Mongols in China-an other question, wrote Konstantin d’Osson (1996,.с.5).

Now it is important to note that at the end of the 14 cent, in other words after 30 years, China has resumed trade on GSR.   But the greatest popularity in the trade was silver coin, 190 g. which people of Moscow took the basis for issue marked half-bars named poltina. With this weight issue started bars-standards half of ingot (poltina) in Moscow after the announcement of its capital the North-East Russia in 1363-190.65 g. It should be noted that the weight norm was in metrological Prussian weight 190 g mark (St. Kubijak),  the corresponding hoards  in the Baltic  States and Belarus showed Ishrat Bektineeev (1995),   Alexsei Luhtan & Vitautas Ushinskas (1988). At this rate of weight have been traded from Danzig to Khorezm.

The degree of monetization of the economy, ie, the degree of participation in the structure of money housekeeper when feudalism can not be set right, particularly given the different origin of the money culture, comparing the state of money circulation and the degree of monetization, respectively, in Russia and the Horde seems an urgent task. At present we can say about different amount of silver in the monetary circulation of Russia and the Horde, as well as the participation of fur and paper money such as the compared states For, not to mention gold. In this case it’s need to the idea British economy historians Pamela Nightingale (2007: 373) about mined coins from gold in England of this time due it silver shortage as published in book Money, prices and wages (MPW 2014: 184). The above opinion is very interesting, it allows not only to explain the massive involvement of the Indian gold, but also understand the reason for minting gold coins in Khorezm (Orgency on the map. Fig.1), which was a transit point for the supply of the precious metal from Delhi sultans.   Medieval philosophers were known for monetization, but it is understood as the number, the number of money in circulation, that is determined by the monetary base Joel Kaye (1998: 190). Who better to talk about the money the degree of saturation of the economy, that is the role of money in economic development.

Current monetization Russia believes Yevgeny Yasin (2005: 11), narrows the monetary base, demonstrating at the same time archaic money circulation in Russia, and the rigid policy of the monetary authorities, acting under the conditions of the liquidity crisis freely convertible currency.

Commercial and non-commercial operations.

The Trade of Golden Horde represented as a transit event, and had the consumer value. The role of the end user requires a search for the product range that meets the needs of the internal market and to satisfy the demand.

Particular attention should be taken into account the balance of this trade. Until now, the special attention was paid only trade and trade relations with the Golden Horde and Rus.

Here is an example of non-trade relation.

The appearance of both the eastern in Volga region, and Iranian Luxury ware & tare in the archaeological layers of Russian cities, especially on 1360 years chronologically linked with river pirates (ushkuyniks).  According to our estimates ushkuyniks can capture and destroy the caravans of ships  on the Volga commodity weight up to 1500 tons.

But we know that Juchids considering dynasty of Ilhan in Iran illegitimate, attacked her, taking out from the territory of the North-West of Iran a lot of trophies. In 1357 Tabriz was occupied by the hordes of the GH (Fig.1: 8), although never before Genghis Khan not captured Tabriz never, it has happened three times, receiving the payoff of the city, that draws attention to the French historiography Konstantin d’Osson (1996,.с.163).

In this regard, the admission process is of great interest in the Volga region, high class tableware and then reselling to Russ. It’s interesting prices and volumes, the mix of products.  In fact, if we accept the fact that the premium tableware of Hulaguid’s Iran is trophies, this result which sales dirt-cheap for merchants going for GH troops. Usually  from Iran and Central Asia in GH imported ceramic ware, especially coated glass frosting and under glazing coning glaze, as noted Rafael Valeev (2007, С.137, 110) almost porcelain.

The availability of expensive Hulaguid’s tableware, found in each city Kypchak people according German Fedorov-Davydov (1989, :221, 214-215), reached, by the way, in the far west of Pskov, it can be isolated in a separate history-economic topic (Nightingale 2007: 388). See also: Jari Eloranta (2007).

After the invasion of Berdibek (1357-1359) became output its own coins had been established in Tabriz. The flow of these coins was recorded in particular in Yekaterinoslavl treasure in Ukraine on the Dnieper, with TPQ — Tokhtamysh (Fig.1;  12. # 2). The same TPQ characterizes Karatunsky treasure. Both the treasure — 14.5 and 38, respectively thousand coins — the largest (Fig.1; 12. # 2-3), where coins output in Saray show divergent monetary flows during the confrontation with Timur (Tamerlan) in 1395, both the emission and direction.

Whether to restrict the boundaries of Kipchak Horde cash flows or scattered in neighboring countries?

The Golden Horde used in its domestic money circulation Russian (Moscow) and bars up to 1315 they exceeded their course, but compared to the normal weight of the ingot-Tatar catfish. In Europe in the 1315-1322 period broke the agrarian crisis caused by the climatic cycle, and inflation was of short time character. About it wroted  Myrdal Janken, & Morell Mats (2011: 79, 80); Stephen Broadberrry, Bruce Camnbell, Alexander Klein, Mark Overton, Bas van Leewen 2014:  191, 207; Kaye 2014: 270, 281).

Currently well-known that according example to which £5 to 1440, at a much could buy a large basket, than to this amount of 1700 (Werde 2015).

But at this time, especially in the Russian lost payments for non-commercial operations with the Horde, so the monetary authorities were forced to increase the rate of weight loss of the ingot-ruble in the form of monetary inflation to make its main currency ruble easier (cheaper) Tatar. So officially drop weight ingots GH was not, because there was obtained Russian silver in its metallic standard \ weighted norm of 198 (Fig.4).

The outflow rate of Russian silver due it such measures has been reduced after the 1315-17 city, but in order to attract the Tatar silver coins into Moscow had to increase exports. The study shows that the currency wars are associated with a decrease in the weight of currency unit. However, if GH received from Russia (Moscow) ingots weighing 198 g, while Moscow received Tatar coins for 196 grams — this suggests that the steppe was stronger than in Moscow. Therefore, inflation in GH was not necessary.

Weight 198 g norm is contained in the 15 treasures from the Russian ingots, found in of GH, and with treasures Tatar bars only 10. Thus, created regression that describes the flow of «Russian-GH»:

(198-196) x N,

Where N — number of money units.

Hence the calculation of the balance of payments surplus in mutual trade becomes a technical problem.

At the same time, the beginning of the issue and circulation of money in all countries west of the Urals in the Middle Ages, there was on the foundations of 202 grams, or a little more grams, which corresponded to the Iranian mitqal (4,4 x 46 g), according to W.Hinz. It was metrology silver reserves of Novgorod, Moscow and GH.

Studying the weighting confrontation ruble and catfish shows that monetary authorities sought to make its currency unit easier, although readmission of money issued by the themselves  lost, because the calculations were made by score.  Score money not allocated in separate system of economical history until. We may to see about abstract money & real money, witch need for fixed served as systems of accounting.  Rainer Metz (1991: 61) wrote about influence in since the currency systems studied here always represent parallel standards (i.e. mixed currencies).

And here it is appropriate to turn to Franchesco Pegolotti (1936: 145), who wrote about currency as money. In the period under review Venice word currency in terms of the money was used as a countable quantity ( «Per centinaio di valuta»).

Works of environmentalists (A Nasimovith) show the most massive population of ermine — one of the most expensive varieties of fur — falls on the lower reaches of the Ob River (Fig.1;  7). If we compare these data with the testimony of the written sources of the trips of Bulgarian merchants in the country of Darkness (Darkness), almost meridional direction of the flow of goods from the Arctic Ocean to the southern shore of the Caspian Sea -Tebriz-Shirvan, Shamakha. There are set prices and volumes. Product flow is defined as the beginning and end of the definition of final destination. Trade provides cities Jessika Goldberg (2012: 60-61; Kaye 2014. P.264). Therefore, if Tabriz known as according to the authors of the Eastern and Italian sources, in the north in the area of mass population ermine as established by modern zoologists, we must find a settlement of urban type. And this is fast enough — it is represented by an archeological monument — Historical and Cultural Reserve “Bars’ (panther) mountain” on the left bank of the Ob Bay in the Arctic Circle area, which was used by the local population as the sanctuary until the 20th century.

Thus the study of trade routes task of history, whereas economic history can no longer succeed in the study of the commodity, cash flows in Medieval, time not provided statistical material.

Great silk road.

The most important article Juchi income was fees from caravans Great Silk Road (GSR). Safe and peaceful trade for GH times enthusiastically described the eastern and European authors. Suffice it to say that the city centers GH were built without fortifications. GSR itself should be viewed as a stream between China and Europe, contributing to «medieval globalization», because of the narrowness of the market traded to the inside. However, by itself caravan trade, contributing to a loss of precious metals from the West, has been small-scale compared to the sea, it was a time-consuming and risky. Science knows three ways silk revenue stream. One of them ended in the mouth of the Don in the Italian colony of Tana (Greek Tanais.), Through Hodzhatarhan; second — in Tabriz-Trapezund (Trbozon) (for him Juchids waged a bitter struggle with the Iranian dynasty Hulaguid), and the third in the Levant (in Mosul / Bagdad), creating a territorial monopoly in the Mediterranean trade oriental goods, spices, silk, sugar, cotton  (Fig.1: 4).

On all three fronts, completely installed volumes, the nomenclature of the goods, prices, periodicity, with an increase in a southerly direction.

In the eastern Mediterranean, however, plays an important role Levantine-Venetian spice trade. Historians put into scientific circulation a large empirical mater that is used to understand some of the processes, the dynamics of trade turnover, in comparison — Egyptian Syria. In particular, according E.Ashtor,  Egypt’s trade with Venice in the late 14th century. It amounted to 240 thousand ducats, which serve more ships of the Venetians, while trade with Syria -. somewhat smaller.

The main trade were spices in exchange for metals, including copper.

Established value of the goods, the weight of each ship, including the Venetian galleys \ oared ships traveling to the Republic of St. Mark from Alexandria, Beirut. E.Ashtor also pointed to the possibility of the establishment of the balance of payments of mutual trade of the Italians in the eastern Mediterranean.

To do this, you must do some research, technical nature. Genoa libra in Alexandria (libber genovesi (sottili) was 316.75 g, which was not represented by a particular numismatic artifacts and served only the nominal value of the cash account (Hinz: 1955, s.16; Хан Н.А., 2006: 128-130).Such money, in my opinion, are countable character.

If these monetary units libber genovesi Cyprus Byzantine taxes paid, amounting to a 12 cent. 700 pounds of gold francs by Ehinau Ashtor  (1971: 72), then they weight terms, these payments amounted to 221725 g of gold, but if payments are taken into account in the Byzantine liter 327,6 g, published Omelijan Pritsak (1998: 11-12) that most likely, the sum becomes greater.

Thanks Ashtor known that the trade turnover of India and Egypt amounted to 700 thousand. Dinars to date in 1425, while trade in the Levant and India passed through the Persian Gulf, since the Greco-Roman period, ie logistics, when overloading goods in caravans, often consisting of 500 camels, as the flow of goods spices and cotton textiles, heading further towards the sea in the ports of Italy, which is then further distributed across Europe, including  Spain, England, Germany by Ehibau Ashtor (1971: 75), Margaret Hall ( Hall 2012: 104-105), Larry Neal (2016: 90-92. Fig.4-4;. 2015: 66). Here it should be noted is seen one of the reasons for the rise of Palmyra as a logistics center in the Syrian desert. But, returning to the subject of the article, note that using the formula of turnover of Chinese and Indian trade, we obtain the numerical value of each component in the trade and balance of payments of each party.

EMtrade=Ind+Ch.

Here: EM – Eastern Mediterranean.

Traces of such trafficking are identified, it is interesting in the material remains.  The auxiliary fields of numismatics and archeology have yielded important studies on coinage and minting and on settlement patterns that are likely to improve our grasp of the economic history of the medieval (Myrdal, Morell 2011: 74-75); Maya Shatzmiller (2012: 529). If St. Petersburgs’ numismatist T.Slepova showed no Genoese and Venetian coins in the North Black Sea coast. At the same time, the emergence of the Chinese silver in Asia Minor, the Levant, and further along the GSR perfectly associated with the Chinese silver. It is represented in the Turkish cash handling, which is due to the use of Chinese Surma’ (Sb) silver  caused the white glow of coins, which were called in the 16 century «Akçe» (Blake, 1937: 327-328).

The presence of coins in the numismatic evidences  containing antimony (Sb) seemingly is only the calculation context for the determination of the degree of participation of Chinese silver in money circulation in the Near East and the Volga region. However, the preliminary stage of the study, I think, would be quite sufficient to determine the absence of coins in chronological slice with antimony and the presence of those with this metal, because of the need to obtain a representative sample of the storerooms of the complexes, the museum collections of coins for statistical processing.

Thus, transcontinental trade in the Middle Ages, using less cargohosting vehicles like beasts of burden, nevertheless it has generated particular commodity assortment of different civilizations, ensuring price stability and profitability of the trade. Capacity and speed camel caravan travel is known, starting from the time of V.Bartold,  E.A.Attagarryev, K.M. Baybakov, E.Kulpin-Gubaidullin), wagon drawn by 3-4 camels transported 500-600 kg, therefore, the calculation of trade flows through China — the Mediterranean basin rests only in the assortment list.

The volume of goods transported by the coast can easily be correlated with data on fleet tonnage.

Italy-Black Sea trade provides a fleet, which for some reason in the Black Sea has been associated exclusively with the rowing galleys.  At the turn of the 14th and 15th cent. Venice has a sales fleet of 300 large ships 3000 ships with carrying capacity of less than 100 tons, as well as paddle courts, which was relatively small 45 units which served a total of 18 thousand staff  who published Kenett Cameron (1973: 250).

This armada of ships used at the end of the Great Silk Road, at the beginning of the path to Europe. The most voluminous data we have on the Levant, then –Trapezund, Tabriz and finally Thana \Azak (Khan 2006: 228-229) where made their trades as the merchants of Venice and Genoa (Pegolotti 1936, p .223). By fragmentary data by S.P.Karpov annual turnover of Tana and Trabzon ports was 2 and 8, respectively, Halley (See also: Rustam Nabiyev 2012: 83-84).

In this regard, attention should be paid to the fact circumstance that the insignificance of export of goods from the eastern basin of the Black Sea by the Italians, the combined transit merchants from Europe to China. Italian merchant, going from Tana to China through territory of GH, had to have capital of 25 thousand. Florins, and that it is important to note that the historical science could not pay attention to the circumstances of use in the practice of monetary relations monetary form on the whole route of caravans eastward  (Pegolotti 1936: 21, 22; Хан 2006: 155). 25 thousand very large sum vages Pegolotti level manager, that is the chief office of the trading house of Bardi in London or Naples was 200 florins per year, while the beginner 5-7, and the German city of Frankfurt – on Mayne got freedom from the emperor in 1372 For 25 or 26 thousand florins by Jacques le Goff (2010: 166).

However, according to the Florentine merchant Franchesco Pegolotti trade in Thane it was organized in such a way that implied the concentration of goods within the multiplicity of displacement of the ship (Pegolotti 1936: 145, 147). The standardization was one of the formal bureaucratic procedures required by the organization studied medieval scholastics writes about  Joel Kaye (1998: 169). Among such procedures were «… introduction of money price as standardized measure». Such standardization, which wrote Pegolotti, leads us to an understanding of the mechanism of economic organization in the Hanseatic merchant trade union, which already speculated on the effects of the law of one price (O.Volkraft, K.Person, Sh.Ogilvie, Н.Хан).

For historical and economic research it is very important circumstances chronological synchronicity, when two events in this case, supply \ end products at GSR on the coast and the tonnage of the fleet given in the same time.

However, the science of economics, especially monetary theory developed their cognitive tools for the study of trade, as a process, which took place at the interface of two media and two civilizations.

We are talking about Irving Fisher’s formulas, to be adequately adapted to the existing material.

So:

MV = PT,

Where M — the mass of commodities; V — velocity of money circulation; P — price.

This formula has been used in economic history as a means of establishing the GDP, Nikolas Mayhew (1995; Broadberry ets 2014: 208, 217; MPW 2014: 71), and in addition it is believed that the monetary expression of the export \ import, ie the state of the trade balance is comparable to GDP particular area as noted William J. Collins, Kevin H. O’Rourke and Jeffrey G. Williamson (1997: 15-16) so its adaptation to the goods flows from Asia will reveal the money supply, serving a particular stream, ie,

T =

So, we can establish that the flow of goods is not an adequate copy of the trade routes of the studied historical science.

We now turn to the historical outline of events.

GH had problems with Italian Black Sea trade, when in 1343 Janibek burned colony at the mouth of the Don Tana, although in 1347 concluded a peace treaty with them. At this time, the outbreak plague (Black Death) in Europe, which according to the latest historical and economic research in 1350 dramatically changed the direction of economic growth (Neal 2015: 50), and the beginning of the 3rd Genoese War (1350-56) once again became restrain the Black Sea trade GH. Northern Black Sea has dropped out of sight of the Chinese caravan and GSR moved in the Iran-Iraq, so in 1355, when the Turks crossed Hellespont at Gallipol and finally entrenched in the Balkans (Вернадский 1997: 211) it was an important signal to the cessation of trading in the pool black sea.

All of the above, apparently, was the cause of war marches Berdybek GH Ruler (1357-1359) to the Tabriz, the preparation of which was performed by his father Janibek (1342-1357). Thus, the lessons of economic history reveal the new pages of political history and come to understand some of the reasons motivating actions of certain politicians in the Middle Ages. This historical perspective should be taken into account.

Consequently, a campaign Berdibek on Tabriz in 1357 is a struggle for the flow of goods from the Far East, the data coinage, treasure found in Ukraine near the city of Dnipo, suggest that GH Tabriz held until the expulsion of its satraps by Tamerlane in 1395. Therefore, a trade study flow from China via the Tan in the period 1357-1395 seems to be quite amusing affair, especially since Tamerlane also burned Tana.

Historians from   Moscow & Kazan have shown that the most disastrous for the Golden Horde was the invasion of Timur (V.L.Egorov, A.G.Muhamadiev, I.N.Mirgaliev). Two of his campaign — through the steppes of Kazakhstan, as well as through Derbent — Ossetia caused irreparable damage to the state headed at the time Tokhtamysh (Neal 2016: 88 Fig.4-3.). These trips were for Tokhtamysh true nature of the disaster. And the resumption of the supply of silver from China GH — Empire Tokhtamysh could not save.

Extensive use of British economy historians  data numismatics and written narratives allowed them to reach the level of macroeconomic analysis of monetary circulation. N.Mayhem, M.Allen, St.Broadberry, R.Bolton show high efficiency of scientific Fisher’s formula, Irving Fisher (1922: Chpt.8. ## 4, 5) it can be applied to analyze the situation in the vast interactions of Russia and the Horde in the Middle Ages.

Taxation.

Ph.Hoffman (2015: 307)wrote that the state have two features. Violence & taxes. Written sources reflect how great it was much violence to conquer the country. And in the struggle for power, some Russian rulers have resorted to the help of Saray, bringing the Mongol military force. It may be noted the campaign of Ivan Kalita to Smolensk and the suppression of the uprising in Tver of Ch(Cht)olkanm in 1327, and the fight against Hulaguid’s Iran Peter Nitsche (1981: 64); Fennel (1995: 202); Bertold Spuler (1968: 120, 122-123$; 1972: 141-150); Lev Гумилев (2013: 564-565). At the same time, very painful for the Russian historical science is Horde «Vyhod», which has been deprived of economy sense for the Golden Horde, with a huge m orally and political significance for the Russian princes. Orda’s Vyhod, accounting for 1-2 tons of silver per year, and was lower than the annual income of a major aristocrat, Mamays’, for example.

Mongolian internal taxation -.individual topic, and probably it goes back to the Chinese tradition, as evidenced by even the material remains (Kramarovskii 2001: 116). As a source of external assessment should be considered Horde Vyhod.

The word «Vyhod» is a translation of the Arabic term «kharaj» (kharaj) that, at the same time, close to the Arabic verb «to go.» IV form of the verb «akharaj» means both «force quit» and «get paid». Mongolian fiscals tried to convince Russian to pay an annual tribute (Вернадский, 1997: 235, 422-423, n. 336), which was associated in the past with yeild from the doorway, gate (the Exit). As is known, kharaj — land tax, which was introduced by the Arabs fear since the era of the great achievements in the 8th century. for the taxation of non-Muslims.it unfolded based on mutual responsibility of rural communities often use a single source to irrigate their farmland (Lokkegaard 1950: 199-201).

As established by the American economic historian, in China there were external and internal taxes in the period of Mongol rule Jonatan Smith (1970: 48-49).

The amount of the Horde «vyhod» amounted to 5320 rubles in the 14th century., And in the first third of the XV century. – 7 by Roman Roublev (1966; 1970).

We mentioned earlier that the working tool of monetary circulation in the Horde was a Russian silver ingot weighing 198 g or 198.5. Means vyhod taken into account for this weight. Treasury in Saray had to fix a flow of funds each year as the 5 thousand X 198, which is equal to 1,053,360 g.Ag. But this does not always happen.

We may understand the role of money in the balance of payments of GH should be noted that the income of Mamay, received in Berdibek (1357-1359) time post\position Temnik  (Emir) — Begliaebek was not higher than the amount of the Horde Vyhod, ie 1-2 tons of silver per year. Aristocrats with the position of Mamay in the hierarchy of GH was not less than 70 units in the number of administrative areas (Emir equated temnik) Вадим Егоров (1985: 59). Their total annual income does not exceed by my calculations 70 — 140 tons of silver.

Thus, the available material historical and economic sources lead us to understand economic processes in the Middle Ages, when «By the thirteenth century, money, expressed as numbered annual income, served as the prime bureaucratic instrument in the quantification of qualitative social grades and responsibilities» (Kaye 1998: 169).

Paid whether Horde aristocrats taxes on these amounts ?

Therefore Vyhod, devoid of economic sense for of GH, played a significant role in the policy of the Russian princes, with great moral and ideological significance.

In this case, I believe, should be to make a retreat. According to Vernadsky the entire amount of the tax period in Russia amounted to 145 000 rubles, which is multiplied on 0,2 kg for the ruble will correspond to 29 tons of silver. These and other data on taxes and duties can lead researcher on GDP and its comparison to Russia and GH.

As an example, you can pay attention to the amount of tribute Wallachia and Moldavia, which are paid 1459-1462 the Ottoman Empire, which is 10 thousand Venetian ducats, (Iliescu 1967: 283, note.39) that represents data for further collection of material in comparative terms.[1]

The world’s financial history shows that the reason for the collection in its own coffers emergency surtax could be a war. Extraordinary charges are summarized at the time J.Hiks, were more convenient than treatment to creditors because it was necessary to return the loans. At the same time, according John Hicks (1969: 84-86)  the abuse of emergency requisitions could lead to «tyranny» in the mentality of taxpayers in relation to power.

Redemption of captives is a special item in the budgets of European countries , starting from the XIII century. Ransom for Moscow Prince Vasily II (1423-1462), marked in Pskov chronicles — 29.5 thouasand ruobl by Gustav Alef (1970: 19, note.41),  \about 5.9 ton of silver\, that the corresponds to the «federal» tax all of «Russian land» without Kiev, Pskov & Novgorod. After this incident Moscow became start coin reform with aim of united tax system Novgorod & Moscow.

So, we have maximum data or Russian taxes late Medieval by G.Vernadsky.

In general, the finances in Europe, summarized briefly as historians and economists give a wide variety of (Broadberry 2012; Guenee 1987, s.181 next; Neal 2016).

Instead of a conclusion.

The Russia, in the Ural mountains began to extract the silver from the late 16th century. But as shown above, the struggle for the flow of goods, which includes precious metals, exacerbated by cycling their production and deliveries. Reducing their production only increased demand and puts countries at the end of their admission to the most depend position Jonh Nef (1941), Wolfgang Stormer (1985). The main source of silver supply — were his delivery from the mountains of the Eastern Alps Province (Innsbruck — Upper Harz), carried out by Italian merchants across the Black Sea north of the colony, as well as from commercial and non-commercial operations with Russia — the North-East and South. Studying the dynamics of silver supply in Eastern Europe, performed on the basis of the data shows that in the middle of its 14 admission into GH decreased.

The most recent coin hoards of modern Tatarstan — the Kazan Khanate the first quarter of the 15th century have a date TPQ 1415. Karatunsky treasure here considered, in particular. The movement under the leadership of Jan Gus (Czech. Jan Hus) (1369-1415) in the Czech Republic witch start in 1415 is not as the random coincidence, perhaps the reason for the termination of the supply of silver to the east.

Not surprisingly, the supply of silver from Central Europe to the Horde example demonstrates ending its coinage — a model for studying the effect of “differential rent” according to Karl Marx. Meanwhile, Alfred Marshall (1842-1924) designed «The law of diminishing returns» in which distance affects the cost of goods and services, but it may overlap separated imbedding\investment in the modern interpretation can be found  in Milton Friedman (2005: 23-24, 109, 114). In this connection, Ending coinage in Kazan in 1420, and the arrival surma’s silver from China not only conforms to the provisions of this law, but points to the fact that the eastern silver as an investment here was obviously a little bit. This is the essence of the economic situation. This fact should be considered as a rare case in the history when the interests of the economy outweighed policy interests.

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FIGURES.

Fig.1.

 

Fig.1. Schematic map of trade routes and trade flows and related military-political processes of the Golden Horde in the Middle East in a 14 cent.

Legend: 1-the territory of GH; 2-medieval cities; 3-the city with colonies of Italians; 4-flow of goods of the Silk Road; 5-receipt of goods from India to the Middle East; 6-gold flow of the  gold coins of Delij’s sultans in the Volga region; 7-the most massive Habitat ermine (a. Nasimovitch);  8-hiking the Golden Horde rulers at Tabriz in 1357 and 1318; 9-the flow of Siberian furs in Northwest Iran; 10- colonies  of Genoa in East Mederterrenium ; 11-colonies of Venice; 12-hoards silver coins, discussed in the article: 1-Dubovka in Ryazan oblast;  2-Ekaterinoslavsky (Dripr) of Ukraine; 3-Karatunskij. Tatarstan. 13- direct of running  capital  from GH.

Fig.2.

Fig.2. Metallic inflation in Novgorod, Moscow & Golden Horde on the Late of 14th first half of15th centuries.

1 – Baltic coin in Novgorod; 2 —  “Denga” (coin) in Moscow;   3 – Coin in GH & Kazan.

Fiig.3.

Fig.3. The composition of Dubovka hoard 1992, Ryazan disytrict. Chronological  and emission distribution (S. Yanina). by 316 coins.

Fig.4. The dynamics of the interactions of the Golden Horde and Russian weight ratios in the first third of the 14th century. Year 1332-Ibn Battuta details.

Legend: 1 – Weight of Russian ingots; 2 – Weight of Horde’s ingots.

[1] Venetian ducats — the gold needed to serve the Republic’s foreign trade of St.Mark, which was issued with 1285. At first, the weight is 3,5 g. Finese 986ᵒ Swein Gullbekk (2014: 93), so the tribute of Moldavia and Wallachia was 35,000 g.or 35 kg.